Product placement (also known as 'embedded' advertising) occurs when a product or brand gains exposure, apparently incidentally; for example in a film, or a photograph, or even in an advertisement for something else. While brand exposure obviously provides a distinct benefit to a particular company, it is not essential. The simple activity of smoking can also be enhanced by its association with a broad variety of desirable personalities or characteristics.
Under provisions of the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992, the broadcast or publication of tobacco advertising deemed to be 'accidental or incidental' remains permissible. In the Explanatory Memorandum to the Act,(3) it is explicitly stated that the use of cigarettes by characters in films and in published material falls into this category, provided that no direct or indirect benefit (financial or otherwise) is received by the broadcaster or publisher.
American research shows that teenagers are three times as likely as adults to be frequent movie-goers,(78) and the situation is likely to be similar in Australia. This makes films an effective way to reach young people.
A review article examining the health content of the most popular American films made between 1977 and 1988 noted that portrayal of tobacco smoking had increased. The authors noted a number of effects that this could have(79):
ð health-detrimental messages embedded in popular media are widely accessible, well-utilised and personally involving, making them particularly compelling to the audience. By casting powerful, attractive actors in roles that glamorise health-detrimental practices, popular films provide teenagers with ready models of 'typical' adult behaviours.
ð they can help shape public opinion and agenda, by desensitising certain issues and helping mould attitudes and acceptance of even patently ill-advised behaviours.
A study examining trends in tobacco use in the 20 top-grossing US films each year from 1960 through to 1990 (based on the random selection of two films each year)(80) found that smokers were typically presented as white, male, middle class, successful and attractive. Smoking was associated with youthful vigour, good health, good looks and personal and professional acceptance. Over the time period surveyed, smoking became more frequently portrayed in a social than a personal setting, and its use was associated with stress reduction. Although the films changed to some extent to reflect the reality that smoking has declined among better educated and more affluent groups, it was still almost three times as prevalent as in comparable population members and was represented as a majority behaviour. Another interesting observation made by this study is that ashtrays have virtually disappeared from movies.(80)
Various brands have featured in a number of recent, well known movies. An American-based group has identified nearly 50 feature films, many made for children, which contain brand-specific cigarette advertising.(78) For example the brand Marlboro received a number of exposures in the film 'Superman II', where Lois Lane (a non-smoker in the comics) chain-smoked and the name appeared on a semi-trailer used in an action sequence. In a scene in 'Beverly Hills Cop', Eddie Murphy holds up a pack of Lucky Strike and says 'These are very popular cigarettes with the children'.(78) Walt Disney movies 'Who framed Roger Rabbit' featured Lucky Strike and Camel cigarettes; 'Honey I shrunk the kids' featured Camels; and in 'Baby', the story of a cute baby dinosaur, the lead female figure smokes Marlboros.(81) The rebellious machismo imparted to smoking by Mel Gibson in 'Lethal Weapon II' was in no way undermined by his acknowledgment that smoking is dangerous in the final scene.(82) Camel and Lucky Strike were both used by the chain-smoking character played by Madonna in 'Desperately Seeking Susan', and Susan Sarandon as the character Louise smoked constantly throughout 'Thelma and Louise', a movie which has since been held up as a post-feminist anthem and the first female version of the 'buddy and road' movie genres.(83) The character played by Winona Ryder in 'Reality Bites' was also a chain-smoker.(84)
It is known that money or other consideration has passed between tobacco companies and film makers in at least some of these instances. Although for the most part payments between tobacco companies and movie makers are kept secret, it is public knowledge that stars and crew members of 'Who Framed Roger Rabbit' received clothing and other items from tobacco manufacturers,(85) and that Philip Morris paid $US42,500 to have Marlboro appear in 'Superman II', and $US350,000 to have James Bond and others light up a Lark in the ironically titled 'Licence to Kill'.(82) (For those who bothered to watch 'Licence to Kill' to the bitter end, a US Surgeon General's health warning was included in the closing credits, apparently because the film makers feared potential legal problems).(86) According to internal documents leaked from the US tobacco company Brown & Williamson, Sylvestor Stallone guaranteed to use their brand of cigarettes in at least five films, for a total fee of $US500,000, paid in cash and in kind. The films included 'Rhinestone Cowboy', 'Godfather III', 'Rambo' and 'Rocky IV'. The same documents show that Sean Connery was offered $12,000 in jewellery to use cigarettes in 'Never Say Never Again', Paul Newman was offered a $US40,000 car for product placement in 'Harry and Son', and Clint Eastwood was offered a $US22,000 car for a placement in 'Killing Ground'.(87)
It is interesting to note that even in films where it is known that money changed hands in order to promote cigarettes, smoking has not necessarily received a simple and uncritical endorsement. For example Superman does draw attention to the fact that Lois might get lung cancer, using his x-ray vision to check her lungs. Since it is fair to assume that the tobacco company involved did not pay to have their product disparaged, one can only assume that the industry is well aware of the psychological profile of its target audience and the portrayal of smoking most likely to appeal.
In response to pressure, the Walt Disney Corporation has agreed to prevent tobacco companies from gaining exposure in return for money or in-kind consideration. However it has stopped short of adopting a policy that prevents glamourised or inappropriate depiction of smoking in its movies, or inclusion of cigarette brand names not paid for by tobacco companies.(88)
According to the US Tobacco Institute, its 13 member companies have agreed to stop using product placement in films,(78) but through product placement, tobacco advertising has achieved a kind of immortality. Long after tobacco advertising has vanished from other forms of media, exposure will continue through movie classics, leaving young viewers with the message that smoking is tough, cool, sexy, glamorous, sophisticated and larger than life.
During the 1930s and 1940s, American tobacco companies paid literally thousands of movie stars and sporting heros to endorse their brands.(89) Paying actors and models to smoke in public was an early technique employed by the promoters of Lucky Strike, to lend glamour -- and acceptability -- to smoking among women. Lucky Strike even managed to persuade the fashion industry to feature green one year, so that Lucky Strike packets would complement the latest fashions.(90)
During the 1970s in Australia, Australian actors featured heavily in brand promotions. Paul Hogan advertised Winfield, Stuart Wagstaff and George Lazenby promoted Benson & Hedges, Graham Kennedy promoted Wills Super Milds, Tony Barber appeared in Cambridge advertisements, Frank Thring advertised Martins, George Mallaby and Gus Mercurio advertised Claridge; and in a campaign not surprisingly doomed to failure, Norman Gunston (a popular but farcically inept character played by actor Garry McDonald) endorsed Dukes.
These kinds of campaigns are now long gone, but attractive images of smoking persist. Photographs of actors, actresses and models with cigarette in hand have become increasingly common during the early 1990s. Whether intended to convey rebellion, risk-taking and defiance, to evoke the movie-star glamour of the 1940s and 1950s, or simply to shock the audience, the cigarette has been included as an accessory on the catwalk, in fashion features(91,92) and in clothing advertisements directed to the young.(93) Marlboro's image is enhanced by being the brand publicly smoked by American model and actress, Jerry Hall. Photographs of actress Michelle Pfeiffer, actress and model Isabella Rossellini,(94) actor Liam Neeson,(92) and model Kate Moss,(91) all smoking, have been published recently, to name only a few. No brand is usually apparent, but this doesn't diminish the message that smoking is glamorous, and to hell with the consequences.
Australian cigarette advertisers are no longer permitted to purchase advertising space in newspapers and magazines for their products, but (except for the absence of a brand name) the effect is almost the same, perhaps even more impressive, if smoking is featured as a fashion accessory by beautiful women throughout the fashion pages, or if film stars are seen explicitly endorsing cigarettes by smoking in their movies.