1.1 Smoking rates -- adults (amended 29/04/98)
1.2 Quitting trends (amended 29/04/98)
1.3 Future trends (amended 29/04/98)
1.4 Smoking rates -- children (amended 01/03/96)
1.5 Smoking rates -- young adults (amended 29/04/98)
1.6 Smoking by occupational group (amended 29/04/98)
1.7 Smoking rates and attained level of education (amended 29/04/98)
1.8 Trends by country of birth (amended 29/04/98)
1.9 Tobacco use among Aboriginal Australians
1.10 Smoking prevalence in Australia compared with selected countries (amended 29/04/98)
References to Chapter 1

2. Trends in tobacco consumption

2.1 Tobacco consumption
2.2 Per capita tobacco consumption in Australia compared with selected countries
2.3 Self-reported measurements of tobacco consumption
2.4 Cigarette, pipe, cigar and roll-your-own tobacco usage among smokers
2.5 Consumption patterns by pack size
2.6 Personal expenditure on tobacco products
2.7 Mean daily tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide exposure
References to Chapter 2

3. The health effects of active smoking

3.1 Cardiovascular disease
3.2 Lung cancer (amended 27/04/98)
3.3 Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
3.4 Other cancers caused by or associated with smoking (amended 27/04/98)
3.5 Health effects for younger smokers (amended 27/04/98)
3.6 Other diseases and health effects of smoking (amended 24/09/96)
3.7 Women's health and smoking (amended 24/09/96)
3.8 Pregnancy, foetal and infant health and smoking (amended 24/09/96) (amended 27/04/98)
3.9 Men's health and smoking (amended 24/09/96)
3.10 Lung disease, smoking and occupational exposures (amended 24/09/96)
3.11 Air pollution, cigarette smoking and lung cancer (amended 24/09/96)
3.12 Health effects of smoking lower tar brands (amended 24/09/96)
3.13 Health effects of pipe and cigar smoking
3.14 Health benefits of smoking? (amended 24/09/96)
3.15 Morbidity (ill health) attributable to tobacco caused disease (amended 24/09/96)
3.16 Deaths attributable to tobacco caused disease (amended 24/09/96)
3.17 Death rates due to tobacco caused disease and socioeconomic status (amended 24/09/96)
3.18 Mortality among Aboriginals from tobacco caused disease (amended 24/09/96)
3.19 Public knowledge and beliefs about the effects of smoking (amended 24/09/96)
3.20 Health effects of smoking non-tobacco substances or tobacco in forms other than conventional Australian manufactured cigarettes (amended 24/09/96)
3.21 Health benefits of cessation
References to Chapter 3 (amended 24/09/96)

4. The health effects of passive smoking

4.1 Major scientific reviews (amended 26/02/98)
4.2 Cardiovascular disease and passive smoking (amended 26/02/98)
4.3 Other health effects of passive smoking (amended 26/02/98)
4.4 Exposure of Australian children to passive smoking (amended 26/02/98)
4.5 Estimations of deaths attributable to passive smoking (amended 15/10/96)
4.6 Public attitudes (amended 15/10/96)
References to Chapter 4 (amended 26/02/98)

5. The Australian cigarette

5.1 Constituents of tobacco smoke
5.2 Quantity of tobacco per cigarette
5.3 Tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide levels
5.4 Package labelling of tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide levels
5.5 Smokers' awareness and understanding of package labelling requirements, and knowledge of tar level and other toxic substances in cigarettes
5.6 Package labelling of health warnings
5.7 Smokers' awareness of health warnings
5.8 Agricultural chemicals, flavourings and other additives
References to Chapter 5

6. Smoking in the workplace and in public places

6.1 Background
6.2 Legal obligation to provide a safe workplace
6.3 The Australian Federation of Consumer Organisations Inc v Tobacco Institute of Australia Ltd: the Morling judgment
6.4 Legal actions by individuals (amended 26/02/98)
6.5 Introducing a policy on smoking in the workplace
6.6 Trends in policy adoption in Australian workplaces
6.7 Acceptance of bans in the workplace
6.8 Effects of workplace bans on smoking behaviour and smokers' health
6.9 Trade unions and arbitration
6.10 The tobacco industry and smoking in the workplace and in public places
6.11 Smoking in restaurants (amended 26/02/98)
6.12 Other areas of restriction
6.13 Public attitudes
References to Chapter 6

7. Taxation and pricing

7.1 Federal excise
7.2 State and territorial licence fees (amended 28/02/96)
7.3 Total government revenue from federal tobacco excise and state and territorial licence fees (amended 28/02/96)
7.4 Trends in real price of cigarettes in Australia (amended 28/02/96)
7.5 Tax as a percentage component of retail price, and total tax paid per 20 cigarettes -- international comparisons (amended 28/02/96)
7.6 Effects of taxation increases on consumption (amended 28/02/96)
7.7 Policy options for changes to federal excise (amended 28/02/96)
7.8 Effects of taxation increases on government revenue (amended 28/02/96)
7.9 Tobacco industry responses to taxation issues (amended 28/02/96)
7.10 Public attitudes (amended 28/02/96)
References to Chapter 7 (amended 28/02/96)

8. Economic costs and benefits of smoking

8.1 Estimating the economic costs of tobacco use in Australia
8.2 Estimated economic benefits of smoking: two studies
8.3 Commentary
References to Chapter 8

9. Smokeless tobacco

9.1 Health effects
9.2 Consumption trends
9.3 Disease rates
9.4 Legislative controls
References to Chapter 9

10. Uptake of smoking

10.1 Factors influencing children
10.2 Factors influencing adults
References to Chapter 10

11. Addiction

11.1 Nicotine as a drug of addiction
11.2 Properties of nicotine
11.3 Measures of dependence
11.4 Tobacco manufacturing and control of nicotine levels
11.5 Nicotine withdrawal syndrome
11.6 Nicotine as a 'gateway' drug
References to Chapter 11

12. Cessation

12.1 Quit rates in Australia
12.2 The process of quitting
12.3 Attitudes and barriers to quitting smoking
12.4 'Slip-ups' and relapses in quit attempts
12.5 Role of the general practitioner and other health workers
12.6 Methods of quitting
12.7 Changes in body weight and quitting
12.8 Health benefits of quitting
References to Chapter 12

13. Anti-smoking campaigns

13.1 Information and education campaigns
13.2 Federal government initiated programs
13.3 State-based programs
13.4 Local government
13.5 Effectiveness of anti-smoking education campaigns
References to Chapter 13

14. The tobacco industry in Australia

14.1 Profitability
14.2 Employment
14.3 Diversification
14.4 Investment by institutional shareholders
14.5 Australian-based offshore operations
14.6 Imports and exports
14.7 Rothmans Holdings Limited
14.8 WD & HO Wills Holdings Limited
14.9 Philip Morris (Australia) Limited
14.10 Market and brand share
14.11 Brand development
14.12 Trends in packaging
14.13 Price discounting
14.14 Tobacco retailing
14.15 New product development
14.16 Primary industry
14.17 Government assistance
14.18 The Tobacco Institute of Australia Limited
14.19 Lobbying tactics of the tobacco industry
14.20 The tobacco industry's response to the passive smoking issue
14.21 Tobacco industry support for medical research
14.22 Product liability cases
14.23 Public attitudes
References for Chapter 14

15. Tobacco advertising

15.1 National restrictions on advertising in Australia
15.2 State restrictions on tobacco advertising
15.3 Voluntary codes versus legislation
15.4 Expenditure on advertising
15.5 Sponsorship
15.6 Advertising at point-of-sale
15.7 Product placement
15.8 Packaging
15.9 Alternative methods of advertising (no longer permissible under Australian federal legislation)
15.10 Tobacco advertising and editorial compromise
15.11 The case for banning tobacco advertising
15.12 Tobacco industry defences of advertising
15.13 The tobacco industry's legal challenge to advertising restrictions
15.14 Impact of bans on the advertising industry
15.15 Public attitudes
References to Chapter 15

16. Women and smoking

16.1 The recruitment of women to smoking
16.2 Trends in smoking rates
16.3 Trends in consumption
16.4 Health effects for women (amended 14/08/00)
16.5 Trends in disease rates (amended 24/09/96)
16.6 Advertising and women (amended 24/09/96)
16.7 Creating products for women (amended 24/09/96)
16.8 Do women smoke for different reasons than men? (amended 24/09/96)
16.9 Informing women (amended 24/09/96)
16.10 Women's attitudes to quitting (amended 24/09/96)
References to Chapter 16 (amended 14/08/00)

Appendices

I. Australian organisations concerned about smoking and health

1. National and state-based cessation education campaign offices
2. Cancer societies (amended 28/02/96)
3. National Heart Foundation of Australia offices
4. Activist bodies
5. Alcohol and drug organisations
6. Government departments of health (sections with an interest in tobacco)
7. Health promotion foundations

II. Policy recommendations

1. International policies
2. National policies (government)
3. State government bodies
4. Health charities, non-government organisations and professional agencies
References to Appendix II

III. Time-line of major federal and state tobacco related legislation

IV. Smoke yield table, 1994

V. Further reading

1. Health effects
2. Statistical reports
3. Prevention and legislation
4. Smoking in the workplace
5. Politics and history
6. Economics and industry
7. Advertising
8. Women and smoking
9. Tobacco control in less developed countries

Index

Tables and figures

Table 1.1: Percentage of smokers among adult Australians
Table 1.2: Quit proportions (age adjusted) 1974-1992
Figure 1.1: Projected male and female adult smoking rates in Australia
Table 1.3: Percentage of Australian schoolchildren who smoked in the last week -- 1984, 1987, 1990, 1993 (amended 01/03/96)
Table 1.4: Young adults -- percentage of smokers, by age group and sex
Table 1.5: Smoking rates by occupational level and sex
Table 1.6: Smoking rates by educational level and sex
Table 1.7: Prevalence of smoking by sex and place of birth, Australia, 1980-1992
Table 1.8: Adult smoking prevalence in selected countries by sex

Table 2.1: Estimated total consumption of tobacco products, Australia, for selected years
Table 2.2: Estimated total consumption of tobacco products per person aged 15 years and over, Australia, for selected years
Table 2.3: Estimated total consumption of tobacco products per smoker aged 15 years and over, Australia, for selected years
Table 2.4: Per capita consumption of manufactured cigarettes for selected countries, 1990
Table 2.5: Self-reported numbers of cigarettes smoked per adult smoker (aged 16 and over) per day by sex, 1980-1992
Table 2.6: Self-reported numbers of cigarettes smoked per week by Australian schoolchildren who smoked in the last week -- 1984, 1987, 1990, 1993.
Table 2.7: Prevalence of tobacco use by type
Table 2.8: Percentage share of market by pack size, 1981-1993
Table 2.9: Mean daily consumption by usual pack size among adult smokers, 1989, 1992
Table 2.10: Mean weekly consumption by usual pack size among schoolchildren aged 12-17 who smoked in the last week, 1990, 1993
Table 2.11: Per capita private final consumption expenditure on tobacco at average 1984-1985 prices, 1981-1982 to 1990-1991
Table 2.12: Mean daily exposure levels of tar for male and female adult smokers, 1980-1992
Table 2.13: Mean daily exposure levels of nicotine for male and female adult smokers, 1980-1992
Table 2.14: Mean daily exposure levels of carbon monoxide for male and female adult smokers, 1980-1992

Figure 3.1: Proportion of deaths from smoking by disease group
Figure 3.2: Mortality per 100,000 from cancers of the lung and other respiratory organs, Australia, 1910-1989
Figure 3.3: Past and projected female mortality rates: lung and breast cancer, Australia, 1910-2004 (per 100,000 persons)
Table 3.1: Time trends in cigarette consumption and lung cancer mortality, Australia, 1920-1989
Table 3.2: Smog days a year in selected world capitals, 1989 (amended 24/09/96)
Table 3.3: Hospital bed-days and hospital episodes attributable to tobacco and other drug use, Australia, 1992.
Table 3.4: Estimated deaths caused or prevented by active smoking of tobacco in Australia in 1992 according to condition
Table 3.5: Smokers' beliefs about illnesses caused by smoking, nationally (1983) and Victoria (1986-1991). (amended 24/09/96)

Table 4.1: Public opinion about passive smoking (amended 15/10/96)

Table 5.1: Average cigarette weight
Table 5.2: Tar content of cigarettes available in Australia (including imported brands), 1969-1991
Table 5.3: Sales weighted tar content of Australian cigarettes, 1969-1989
Table 5.4: Market share of cigarettes by tar content, 1989-1993
Table 5.5: Recall of harmful substances shown on cigarette packaging among smokers
Table 5.6: Smokers' recognition of chemicals in cigarettes
Table 5.7: Awareness among Victorian and South Australian smokers of text of rotating health warnings, 1987-1989.

Table 6.1: Should cafes and restaurants provide separate areas for smokers and non-smokers?
Table 6.2: Seating preference by smoking habit, 1990
Table 6.3: Attitudes to public smoking, 1993

Table 7.1: Price breakdown for a pack of Winfield 25s, June 1995
Table 7.2: Rates of federal excise duty for selected years
Table 7.3: Federal excise revenue and tobacco consumption trends, selected years
Table 7.4: Licence fee charges in each Australian state and territory from year of introduction
Table 7.5: Revenue collected from Australian state and territorial tobacco licence fees, 1975-1995 (amended 28/02/96)
Table 7.6: Federal and state/territorial revenue arising from excise duty and tobacco licence fees, 1975-1994
Table 7.7: Cheapest cigarettes available, 1981-1993
Table 7.8: Movements in cigarette prices by pack size, Rothmans brands in New South Wales 1983, 1989, 1994. (amended 28/02/96)
Table 7.9: Variables affecting cigarette prices, New South Wales, 1983, 1989, 1994 (amended 28/02/96)
Table 7.10: Estimated taxes as a percentage of the retail price of a packet of cigarettes, and total taxes per 20 cigarettes ($US) (amended 28/02/96)
Table 7.11: Estimates of the price elasticity of demand for cigarettes, by age group
Table 7.12: Public opinion on tobacco tax increases in six Australian states (amended 28/02/96)

Table 8.1: Economic costs of tobacco abuse in Australia, 1992

Table 10.1: Setting where adults first began regular smoking

Table 12.1: Quit rates (age adjusted) 1974-1992
Figure 12.1: Attempts to quit among those smoking in preceding 12 months, Victoria, 1991
Table 12.2: Advantages and disadvantages of giving up smoking mentioned by current smokers, 1983, 1986, 1988 and 1991
Table 12.3: Disadvantages of quitting mentioned by smokers, by gender, 1983, 1986, 1988 and 1991

Table 13.1: Estimated total and per capita expenditure on Quit campaigns and anti-smoking activities, Victoria, New South Wales, Western Australia and South Australia, 1988-1995

Table 14.1: Imports of unmanufactured tobacco leaf into Australia, 1992-1993, top 10 countries
Table 14.2: Australian exports of cigarettes, 1988-1993
Table 14.3: Estimated market share of tobacco companies operating in Australia
Table 14.4: Market share by brand and manufacturer
Table 14.5: National top 15 brands, 1995
Table 14.6: Brand preference among secondary schoolchildren aged 12-17, 1984-1993
Table 14.7: Market by pack size, 1981-1993
Table 14.8: Pack size from which Australian schoolchildren who are current smokers obtained their last cigarette, by age group, 1987, 1990 and 1993.
Table 14.9: Tobacco sales volume by type of retail outlet, 1992-1993.
Table 14.10: Credibility of selected professional groups in Western Australia, 1988

Table 15.1: Advertising revenue from Australian television and radio before and after the ban on tobacco advertising
Table 15.2: Public opinion on bans on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in five Australian states

Table 16.1: Percentage of smokers among adult Australians
Table 16.2: Quit proportions (age adjusted) 1974-1992
Figure 16.1: Projected male and female adult smoking rates in Australia
Table 16.3: Percentage of Australian school children who smoked in the last week -- 1984, 1987, 1990, 1993.
Table 16.4: Young adults -- percentage of smokers, by age group and sex
Table 16.5: Smoking rates by occupational level and sex
Table 16.6: Smoking rates by educational level and sex
Table 16.7: Self-reported numbers of cigarettes smoked per adult smoker (aged 16 and over) per day by sex, 1980-1992
Table 16.8: Mean daily exposure levels of tar for male and female adult smokers, 1980-1992
Figure 16.2: Mortality per 100,000 from cancers of the lung and other respiratory organs, Australia, 1910-1989 (amended 24/09/96)
Figure 16.3: Past and projected female mortality rates: lung and breast cancer, Australia, 1910-2004 (per 100,000 persons) (amended 24/09/96)
Table 16.9: Estimated deaths caused or prevented by active smoking of tobacco in Australia in 1992 according to condition (amended 24/09/96)
Table 16.10: Advantages and disadvantages of giving up smoking mentioned by current smokers, 1983, 1986, 1988 and 1991 (amended 24/09/96)
Table 16.11: Disadvantages of quitting mentioned by smokers, by gender, 1983, 1986, 1988 and 1991 (amended 24/09/96)

Table IV.1: Tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide content of cigarettes

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Table of contents

Introduction

1. Trends in smoking prevalence